Mineral (nutrient)




In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life.[1][2] However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.


Minerals, as elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms.[3] Plants get minerals from soil.[3] Most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water.[3] As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.[4] The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium.[1] All of the remaining elements in a human body are called "trace elements". The trace elements that have a specific biochemical function in the human body are sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine and selenium.[5]


Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources.


Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B12) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called "biomineralization", used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells.[6]




Contents






  • 1 Essential chemical elements for humans


    • 1.1 Roles in biological processes




  • 2 Blood concentrations of minerals


  • 3 Dietary nutrition


  • 4 Elements considered possibly essential but not confirmed


  • 5 Mineral ecology


  • 6 See also


  • 7 References


  • 8 Further reading


  • 9 External links





Essential chemical elements for humans


Main article: Composition of the human body

At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes.[7] However, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies.[8]


Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight.[1] Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight.[9] The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ~18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about a gram in total for the average person.[10]


Differences exist opinion about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, there is no scientific consensus on whether chromium is an essential trace element in man. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient,[11][12] but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.[13]


Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean:






























































































































































Nutritional elements in the periodic table
H   He
Li Be   B C N O F Ne
Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc   Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y   Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
 
  * Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
  ** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr











  The four basic organic elements



  Quantity elements



  Essential trace elements



  Deemed essential trace element by U.S., not by European Union



  Suggested function from deprivation effects or active metabolic handling, but no clearly-identified biochemical function in humans



  Limited circumstantial evidence for trace benefits or biological action in mammals



  No evidence for biological action in mammals, but essential in some lower organisms.
(In the case of lanthanum, the definition of an essential nutrient as being indispensable and irreplaceable is not completely applicable due to the extreme similarity of the lanthanides. Thus Ce, Pr, and Nd may be substituted for La without ill effects for organisms using La, and the smaller Sm, Eu, and Gd may also be similarly substituted but cause slower growth.)






Roles in biological processes



















































































































































Dietary element
 RDA (US) [mg][14]
 UL (US and EU) [mg][15][16][17]
 Category
 High nutrient density
dietary sources
 Term for deficiency
 Term for excess

Potassium
04700.0004700
NE; NE
 A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium
 Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange[18]
hypokalemia
hyperkalemia

Chlorine
02300.0002300
 3600; NE
 Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and in cellular pump functions
Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source.
hypochloremia
hyperchloremia

Sodium
01500.0001500
 2300; NE
 A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium
 Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables, milk, and spinach.
hyponatremia
hypernatremia

Calcium
01200.0001200
 2500; 2500
 Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone, supports synthesis and function of blood cells
Dairy products, eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.[19]
hypocalcaemia
hypercalcaemia

Phosphorus
00700.000700
 4000; 4000
 A component of bones (see apatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions
 Red meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats.[20][21] In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate[22]
hypophosphatemia
hyperphosphatemia

Magnesium
00420.000420
 350; 250
 Required for processing ATP and for bones
 Spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado[23]
hypomagnesemia,
magnesium deficiency
hypermagnesemia

Iron
00018.00018
 45; NE
 Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia
 Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate[24]
iron deficiency
iron overload disorder

Zinc
00011.00011
 40; 25
 Pervasive and required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase
 Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[25]
zinc deficiency
zinc toxicity

Manganese
00002.3002.3
 11; NE
 A cofactor in enzyme functions
 Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[26]
manganese deficiency
manganism

Copper
00000.900.9
 10; 5
 Required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
 Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[26]
copper deficiency
copper toxicity

Iodine
00000.1500.150
 1.1; 0.6
 Required for synthesis of thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine and to prevent goiter:
  • Iodine in biology

 Seaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[27]
iodine deficiency
iodism Hyperthyroidism[28]

Chromium
00000.0350.035
NE; NE
 Involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well-defined[29][30]
 Broccoli, grape juice (especially red), meat, whole grain products[31]
Chromium deficiency
Chromium toxicity

Molybdenum
00000.0450.045
 2; 0.6
 The oxidases xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase[32]
 Legumes, whole grains, nuts[26]
 molybdenum deficiency
 molybdenum toxicity[33]

Selenium
00000.0550.055
 0.4; 0.3
 Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase
 Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[34]
selenium deficiency
selenosis

Cobalt
 none
NE; NE
Required in the synthesis of vitamin B12, but because bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually considered part of vitamin B12 which comes from eating animals and animal-sourced foods (eggs...)

Cobalt poisoning

RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31-50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating


* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[35]



Blood concentrations of minerals


Minerals are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the chemical elements discussed in this article, from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some are in upper part of the picture, while others are in the lower part. The figure includes the relative values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple.







Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by mass above the scale and by molarity below. (A separate printable image is available for mass and molarity)




Dietary nutrition


Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).


The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components.[36] Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.



Elements considered possibly essential but not confirmed


Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.[5] One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[36]Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.[5]
















































Element
 Description
 Excess

Bromine
 Possibly important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to make collagen IV.[37]
bromism

Arsenic
 Essential in rat, hamster, goat and chicken models, but no biochemical mechanism known in humans.[38]
arsenic poisoning

Nickel
 Nickel is an essential component of several enzymes, including urease and hydrogenase.[39] Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties of Bifidobacterium.[40] In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis, redox rections, and gene expression. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats.[41]
Nickel toxicity

Fluorine
 Fluorine (as fluoride) is not considered an essential element because humans do not require it for growth or to sustain life. Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure.[42][43] Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established an Adequate Intake.[44]
Fluoride poisoning

Boron
 Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls.[45][46][47] Boron has been shown to be essential to complete the life cycle in representatives of all phylogenetic kingdoms, including the model species Danio rerio (zebrafish) and Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog).[39][48] In animals, supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D.[49]
Nontoxic

Lithium
 It is not known whether lithium has a physiological role in any species,[50] but nutritional studies in mammals have indicated its importance to health, leading to a suggestion that it be classed as an essential trace element.
Lithium toxicity

Strontium
 Strontium has been found to be involved in the utilization of calcium in the body. It has promoting action on calcium uptake into bone at moderate dietary strontium levels, but a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action at higher dietary levels.[51]
 Rachitogenic (causing Rickets)
Other
Silicon and vanadium have established, albeit specialized, biochemical roles as structural or functional cofactors in other organisms, and are possibly, even probably, used by mammals (including humans). By contrast, tungsten, lanthanum, and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms, but these elements appear not to be utilized by humans.[8] Other elements considered to be possibly essential include aluminium, germanium, lead, rubidium, and tin.[39][52][53]
 Multiple


Mineral ecology


Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation.[54] Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide.[54][55] Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms.[55] Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life.[54][55] In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.[56][57]



See also




  • Food composition

  • Health food

  • Macronutrient

  • Micronutrient deficiency



References





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Further reading




  • Humphry Bowen (1966) Trace Elements in Biochemistry. Academic Press.

  • Humphrey Bowen (1979) Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. Academic Press,
    ISBN 0-12-120450-2.



External links







  • Metals in Nutrition

  • Concept of a nutritious food: toward a nutrient density score










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Bressuire

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Subprefecture and commune in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France Bressuire Subprefecture and commune Chateau de Bressuire and the Eglise Notre-Dame Coat of arms Location of Bressuire Bressuire Show map of France Bressuire Show map of Nouvelle-Aquitaine Coordinates: 46°50′27″N 0°29′14″W  /  46.8408°N 0.4872°W  / 46.8408; -0.4872 Coordinates: 46°50′27″N 0°29′14″W  /  46.8408°N 0.4872°W  / 46.8408; -0.4872 Country France Region Nouvelle-Aquitaine Department Deux-Sèvres Arrondissement Bressuire Canton Bressuire Government  • Mayor .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} (2014–20) Jean Michel Bernier Area 1 180.59 km 2 (69.73 sq mi) Population (2014) 2 19,300  • Density 110/km 2 (280/sq mi) Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST) INSEE/Postal code 79049 /79300 Elevation 98–236 m (322–774 ft) (avg. 173 m or 568 ft) 1 French Land Register data, which exclude...
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Vorschmack

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Vorschmack Ukrainian Jewish-style vorschmack served on rye bread Course Hors d'oeuvre Region or state Eastern Europe Associated national cuisine Ashkenazi Jewish, Finnish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Russian Main ingredients Ground meat and/or fish Cookbook: Vorschmack   Media: Vorschmack Vorschmack or forshmak (Yiddish: פֿאָרשמאַק ‎, from archaic German Vorschmack , "foretaste" [1] or "appetizer" [2] ) is an originally East European dish made of salty minced fish or meat. Different variants of this dish are especially common in Ashkenazi Jewish and Finnish cuisine. Some varieties are also known in Russian and Polish cuisine. Contents 1 In Jewish cuisine 2 In Russian cuisine 3 In Polish cuisine 4 In Finnish cuisine 5 See also 6 References In Jewish cuisine According to Gil Marks, the German name points to the possible Germanic origin of this dish. [1] William Pokhlyobkin descr...
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Quarantine

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For other uses, see Quarantine (disambiguation). Signal flag "Lima" called the "Yellow Jack" which when flown in harbor means ship is under quarantine. A simple yellow flag (also called the "Yellow Jack") had historically been used to signal quarantine (it stands for Q among signal flags), but now indicates the opposite, as a signal of a ship free of disease that requests boarding and inspection. A quarantine is used to separate and restrict the movement of people; it is 'a restraint upon the activities or communication of persons or the transport of goods designed to prevent the spread of disease or pests', for a certain period of time. [1] This is often used in connection to disease and illness, such as those who may possibly have been exposed to a communicable disease. [2] The term is often erroneously used to mean medical isolation, which is "to separate ill persons who have a communicable disease from those who are healthy...
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