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Parsec
A parsec is the distance from the Sun to an astronomical object that has a parallax angle of one arcsecond (not to scale)
General information
Unit system	astronomical units
Unit of	length/distance
Symbol	pc
Conversions
1 pc in ...	... is equal to ...
metric (SI) units	7016308570000000000♠3.0857×1016 m    ~31 petametres
imperial & US units	7016308575618560000♠1.9174×1013 mi
astronomical units	7016308568047999355♠2.06265×105 au    7016308567400801506♠3.26156 ly

The parsec (symbol: pc) is a unit of length used to measure large distances to astronomical objects outside the Solar System. A parsec is defined as the distance at which one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one arcsecond,^[1] which corresponds to 7005648000000000000♠648000/π astronomical units. One parsec is equal to about 3.26 light-years (30 trillion km or 19 trillion mi [n.b. a 'trillion' here means a 'million million' - using the current "two-legged tripod" number system]). The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is about 1.3 parsecs (4.2 light-years) from the Sun.^[2] Most of the stars visible to the unaided eye in the night sky are within 500 parsecs of the Sun.^{[citation needed]}

The parsec unit was probably first suggested in 1913 by the British astronomer Herbert Hall Turner.^[3] Named as a portmanteau of the parallax of one arcsecond, it was defined to make calculations of astronomical distances from only their raw observational data quick and easy for astronomers. Partly for this reason, it is the unit preferred in astronomy and astrophysics, though the light-year remains prominent in popular science texts and common usage. Although parsecs are used for the shorter distances within the Milky Way, multiples of parsecs are required for the larger scales in the universe, including kiloparsecs (kpc) for the more distant objects within and around the Milky Way, megaparsecs (Mpc) for mid-distance galaxies, and gigaparsecs (Gpc) for many quasars and the most distant galaxies.

In August 2015, the IAU passed Resolution B2, which, as part of the definition of a standardized absolute and apparent bolometric magnitude scale, mentioned an existing explicit definition of the parsec as exactly 7005648000000000000♠648000/π astronomical units, or approximately 7016308567758149137♠3.08567758149137×10¹⁶ metres (based on the IAU 2012 exact SI definition of the astronomical unit). This corresponds to the small-angle definition of the parsec found in many contemporary astronomical references.^[4]

History and derivation

The parsec is defined as being equal to the length of the longer leg of an extremely elongated imaginary right triangle in space. The two dimensions on which this triangle is based are its shorter leg, of length one astronomical unit (the average Earth-Sun distance), and the subtended angle of the vertex opposite that leg, measuring one arc second. Applying the rules of trigonometry to these two values, the unit length of the other leg of the triangle (the parsec) can be derived.

One of the oldest methods used by astronomers to calculate the distance to a star is to record the difference in angle between two measurements of the position of the star in the sky. The first measurement is taken from the Earth on one side of the Sun, and the second is taken approximately half a year later, when the Earth is on the opposite side of the Sun. The distance between the two positions of the Earth when the two measurements were taken is twice the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The difference in angle between the two measurements is twice the parallax angle, which is formed by lines from the Sun and Earth to the star at the distant vertex. Then the distance to the star could be calculated using trigonometry.^[5] The first successful published direct measurements of an object at interstellar distances were undertaken by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1838, who used this approach to calculate the 3.5-parsec distance of 61 Cygni.^[6]

stellar parallax motion from annual parallax

The parallax of a star is defined as half of the angular distance that a star appears to move relative to the celestial sphere as Earth orbits the Sun. Equivalently, it is the subtended angle, from that star's perspective, of the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit. The star, the Sun and the Earth form the corners of an imaginary right triangle in space: the right angle is the corner at the Sun, and the corner at the star is the parallax angle. The length of the opposite side to the parallax angle is the distance from the Earth to the Sun (defined as one astronomical unit (au), and the length of the adjacent side gives the distance from the sun to the star. Therefore, given a measurement of the parallax angle, along with the rules of trigonometry, the distance from the Sun to the star can be found. A parsec is defined as the length of the side adjacent to the vertex occupied by a star whose parallax angle is one arcsecond.

The use of the parsec as a unit of distance follows naturally from Bessel's method, because the distance in parsecs can be computed simply as the reciprocal of the parallax angle in arcseconds (i.e. if the parallax angle is 1 arcsecond, the object is 1 pc from the Sun; if the parallax angle is 0.5 arcseconds, the object is 2 pc away; etc.). No trigonometric functions are required in this relationship because the very small angles involved mean that the approximate solution of the skinny triangle can be applied.

Though it may have been used before, the term parsec was first mentioned in an astronomical publication in 1913. Astronomer Royal Frank Watson Dyson expressed his concern for the need of a name for that unit of distance. He proposed the name astron, but mentioned that Carl Charlier had suggested siriometer and Herbert Hall Turner had proposed parsec.^[3] It was Turner's proposal that stuck.

Calculating the value of a parsec

In the diagram above (not to scale), S represents the Sun, and E the Earth at one point in its orbit. Thus the distance ES is one astronomical unit (au). The angle SDE is one arcsecond (1/3600 of a degree) so by definition D is a point in space at a distance of one parsec from the Sun. Through trigonometry, the distance SD is calculated as follows:

SD=EStan⁡1″{displaystyle mathrm {SD} ={frac {mathrm {ES} }{tan 1''}}}

SD≈ES1″=1au160×60×π180=648000πau≈206264.81 au.{displaystyle mathrm {SD} approx {frac {mathrm {ES} }{1''}}={frac {1,{mbox{au}}}{{frac {1}{60times 60}}times {frac {pi }{180}}}}={frac {648,000}{pi }},{mbox{au}}approx 206,264.81{mbox{ au}}.}

Because the astronomical unit is defined to be 7011149597870700000♠149597870700 m,^[7] the following can be calculated:

A corollary states that a parsec is also the distance from which a disc one astronomical unit in diameter must be viewed for it to have an angular diameter of one arcsecond (by placing the observer at D and a diameter of the disc on ES).

Mathematically, to calculate distance, given obtained angular measurements from instruments in arcseconds, the formula would be:

Distancestar=Distanceearth−suntan⁡θ3600{displaystyle Distance_{star}={frac {Distance_{earth-sun}}{tan {frac {theta }{3600}}}}}

where θ is the measured angle in arcseconds, Distance_earth-sun is a constant (1 AU or 1.5813×10⁻⁵ ly). The calculated stellar distance will be in the same measurement unit as used in Distance_earth-sun (e.g. if Distance_earth-sun = 1 AU, unit for Distance_star is in astronomical units; if Distance_earth-sun = 1.5813×10⁻⁵ ly, unit for Distance_star is in light years).

The length of the parsec used in IAU 2015 Resolution B2^[8] (exactly 7005648000000000000♠648000/π astronomical units) corresponds exactly to that derived using the small-angle calculation. This differs from the classic inverse-tangent definition by about 200 km, i.e. only after the 11th significant figure. As the astronomical unit was defined by the IAU (2012) as an exact SI length in metres, so now the parsec corresponds to an exact SI length in metres. To the nearest meter, the small-angle parsec corresponds to 30,856,775,814,913,673 m.

Usage and measurement

The parallax method is the fundamental calibration step for distance determination in astrophysics; however, the accuracy of ground-based telescope measurements of parallax angle is limited to about 0.01 arcseconds, and thus to stars no more than 100 pc distant.^[9] This is because the Earth's atmosphere limits the sharpness of a star's image.^[10] Space-based telescopes are not limited by this effect and can accurately measure distances to objects beyond the limit of ground-based observations. Between 1989 and 1993, the Hipparcos satellite, launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), measured parallaxes for about 7005100000000000000♠100000 stars with an astrometric precision of about 0.97 milliarcseconds, and obtained accurate measurements for stellar distances of stars up to 1000 pc away.^[11]

ESA's Gaia satellite, which launched on 19 December 2013, is intended to measure one billion stellar distances to within 20 microarcseconds, producing errors of 10% in measurements as far as the Galactic Centre, about 8000 pc away in the constellation of Sagittarius.^[12]

Distances in parsecs

Distances less than a parsec

Distances expressed in fractions of a parsec usually involve objects within a single star system. So, for example:

• One astronomical unit (au), the distance from the Sun to the Earth, is just under 6994499999999999999♠5×10⁻⁶ parsecs.


• The most distant space probe, Voyager 1, was 6996703000000000000♠0.000703 parsecs from Earth as of January 2019^[update]. Voyager 1 took 41 years to cover that distance.


• The Oort cloud is estimated to be approximately 0.6 parsecs in diameter
  

The jet erupting from the active galactic nucleus of M87 is thought to be 7000150000000000000♠1.5 kiloparsecs (7019462629720109201♠4890 ly) long. (image from Hubble Space Telescope)

Parsecs and kiloparsecs

Distances expressed in parsecs (pc) include distances between nearby stars, such as those in the same spiral arm or globular cluster. A distance of 1000 parsecs (3262 light-years) is commonly denoted by the kiloparsec (kpc). Astronomers typically use kiloparsecs to express distances between parts of a galaxy, or within groups of galaxies. So, for example:

• One parsec is approximately 3.26 light-years.


• 
  Proxima Centauri, the nearest known star to earth other than the sun, is about 1.30 parsecs (4.24 light-years) away, by direct parallax measurement.


• The distance to the open cluster Pleiades is 7018401138085590734♠130±10 pc (7018397350679848393♠420±30 ly) from us, per Hipparcos parallax measurement.


• The centre of the Milky Way is more than 8 kiloparsecs (7020245978992287100♠26000 ly) from the Earth, and the Milky Way is roughly 34 kpc (7021104068035198388♠110000 ly) across.


• The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) is about 780 kpc (2.5 million light-years) away from the Earth.

Megaparsecs and gigaparsecs

A distance of one million parsecs is commonly denoted by the megaparsec (Mpc). Astronomers typically express the distances between neighbouring galaxies and galaxy clusters in megaparsecs.

Galactic distances are sometimes given in units of Mpc/h (as in "50/h Mpc", also written "50 Mpc h⁻¹"). h is a parameter in the range 0.5 < h < 0.75 reflecting the uncertainty in the value of the Hubble constant H for the rate of expansion of the universe: h = H/100 km/s/Mpc. The Hubble constant becomes relevant when converting an observed redshift z into a distance d using the formula d ≈ c/H × z.^[13]

One gigaparsec (Gpc) is one billion parsecs — one of the largest units of length commonly used. One gigaparsec is about 3.26 billion light-years, or roughly 1/14 of the distance to the horizon of the observable universe (dictated by the cosmic background radiation). Astronomers typically use gigaparsecs to express the sizes of large-scale structures such as the size of, and distance to, the CfA2 Great Wall; the distances between galaxy clusters; and the distance to quasars.

For example:

• The Andromeda Galaxy is about 0.78 Mpc (2.5 million light-years) from the Earth.


• The nearest large galaxy cluster, the Virgo Cluster, is about 16.5 Mpc (54 million light-years) from the Earth.^[14]
  


• The galaxy RXJ1242-11, observed to have a supermassive black hole core similar to the Milky Way's, is about 200 Mpc (650 million light-years) from the Earth.


• The galaxy filament Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, currently the largest known structure in the universe, is about 3 Gpc (10 billion light-years) across.


• The particle horizon (the boundary of the observable universe) has a radius of about 14.0 Gpc (46 billion light-years).^[15]
  

Volume units

To determine the number of stars in the Milky Way, volumes in cubic kiloparsecs^[a] (kpc³) are selected in various directions. All the stars in these volumes are counted and the total number of stars statistically determined. The number of globular clusters, dust clouds, and interstellar gas is determined in a similar fashion. To determine the number of galaxies in superclusters, volumes in cubic megaparsecs^[a] (Mpc³) are selected. All the galaxies in these volumes are classified and tallied. The total number of galaxies can then be determined statistically. The huge Boötes void is measured in cubic megaparsecs.^[16]

In physical cosmology, volumes of cubic gigaparsecs^[a] (Gpc³) are selected to determine the distribution of matter in the visible universe and to determine the number of galaxies and quasars. The Sun is the only star in its cubic parsec,^[a] (pc³) but in globular clusters the stellar density could be from 100 to 1000 per cubic parsec.

In popular culture

The parsec features in Han Solo's claim that he "made the Kessel Run in less than 12 parsecs," in both A New Hope and Solo: A Star Wars Story. Many say that parsec was used incorrectly in A New Hope, as a measurement of time, not distance.^[17] The term is also occasionally used in Star Trek.

See also

• Distance measures (cosmology)


• List of humorous units of measurement#Attoparsec

Notes

References

External links

• 
  Guidry, Michael. "Astronomical Distance Scales". Astronomy 162: Stars, Galaxies, and Cosmology. University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  


• 
  Merrifield, Michael. "pc Parsec". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.